Questioning in Physical Education and sports: a scoping review
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.55040/j0z54m44Keywords:
questioning techniques, physical education, sport coaching, instructional practices, sportsAbstract
Questioning is an essential pedagogical tool, yet its practical application in Physical Education (PE) and sports is often superficial. This scoping review aimed to synthesize evidence on the use of questioning by teachers and coaches, examining patterns, effects, and methodological factors. Following PRISMA-ScR guidelines, 34 studies were selected from Scopus, ERIC, Taylor & Francis, and MDPI databases. JBI and MMAT tools were used for the methodological mapping of the studies and to improve the interpretation of findings. The analysis revealed a predominance of lower-order cognitive questions (knowledge and comprehension) across both contexts, regardless of study rigor. Furthermore, studies reported improvements in cognitive engagement, tactical thinking, and decision-making. However, the implementation of questioning faces critical barriers, such as a lack of pedagogical knowledge, time constraints, and the reactive use of the technique. Additionally, the prevalence of descriptive and qualitative designs limits the ability to establish definitive causal relationships. It is concluded that the potential of questioning to foster higher-order learning remains underutilized. It is imperative to develop targeted training programs and conduct rigorous experimental research to evaluate the long-term impact of inquiry strategies on educational and athletic performance, bridging the current gap between theory and professional practice.
References
Anderson, L. W., & Krathwohl, D. R. (Eds.). (2001). A taxonomy for learning, teaching, and assessing: A revision of Bloom’s taxonomy of educational objectives (Complete ed.). Longman.
Ashworth, S., & Chatoupis, K. K. (2017). Thinking and moving: The cognitive aspect of physical education. Inquiries in Physical Education and Sport, 15(1), 87–115. https://doi.org/10.26253/heal.uth.ojs.ispe.2017.1494
Askildsen, C.-E. M., & Løndal, K. (2024). Practising in physical education: A study of a teacher’s experiences and role enactment. European Physical Education Review, 30(1), 51–68. https://doi.org/10.1177/1356336X231183789
Azevedo, E., Ramos, A., Araújo, R., Valério, C., & Mesquita, I. (2024). How can tailored questions foster reflection in preservice teachers? A year-long action research study. European Physical Education Review, 30(3), 458–474. https://doi.org/10.1177/1356336X231217405.
Barker, T. H., Habibi, N., Aromataris, E., Stone, J. C., Leonardi-Bee, J., Sears, K., Hasanoff, S., Klugar, M., Tufanaru, C., Moola, S., & Munn, Z. (2024). The revised JBI critical appraisal tool for the assessment of risk of bias for quasi-experimental studies. JBI Evidence Synthesis, 22(3), 378–388. https://doi.org/10.11124/JBIES-23-00268
Barker, T. H., Stone, J. C., Sears, K., Klugar, M., Tufanaru, C., Leonardi-Bee, J., Aromataris, E., & Munn, Z. (2023). The revised JBI critical appraisal tool for the assessment of risk of bias for randomized controlled trials. JBI Evidence Synthesis, 21(3), 494–506. https://doi.org/10.11124/JBIES-22-00430
Belmekki, L. (2021). Classroom Questioning Culture: Benefits, Characteristics, Opportunities and Obstacles. https://doi.org/10.34874/IMIST.PRSM/LIRI-V2I1.27503
Bloom, B. S. (1956). Taxonomy of educational objectives: The classification of educational goals. Longmans.
Broek, G. V., Boen, F., Claessens, M., Feys, J., & Ceux, T. (2011). Comparison of three instructional approaches to enhance tactical knowledge in volleyball among university students. Journal of Teaching in Physical Education, 30(4), 375–392. https://doi.org/10.1123/jtpe.30.4.375
Bulent, D., Erdal, B., Ceyda, A., Betul, T., Nurgul, C., & Cevahir, D. (2016). An analysis of teachers' questioning strategies. Educational Research and Reviews, 11(22), 2065–2078. https://doi.org/10.5897/ERR2016.3014
Butler, J. (1997). How would Socrates teach games? A constructivist approach. Journal of Physical Education, Recreation & Dance, 68(9), 42–47. https://doi.org/10.1080/07303084.1997.10605029
Chambers, K. L., & Vickers, J. N. (2006). Effects of bandwidth feedback and questioning on the performance of competitive swimmers. The Sport Psychologist, 20(2), 184–197. https://doi.org/10.1123/tsp.20.2.184
Chin, C., & Kayalvizhi, G. (2002). Posing problems for open investigations: What questions do pupils ask? Research in Science & Technological Education, 20(2), 269–287. https://doi.org/10.1080/0263514022000030499
Cope, E., Alsowayen, M., Hosawi, S., Turkistani, A., & Cushion, C. J. (2024). Exploring the impact of a coach development programme through the perspectives of Saudi Arabian sport coaches. Physical Education and Sport Pedagogy, 1–15. https://doi.org/10.1080/17408989.2024.2319063
Cope, E., Partington, M., Cushion, C. J., & Harvey, S. (2016). An investigation of professional top-level youth football coaches' questioning practice. Qualitative Research in Sport, Exercise and Health, 8(4), 380–393. https://doi.org/10.1080/2159676X.2016.1157829
Dewey, J. (1938). Experience and Education. New York: Macmillan Company.
Díaz-Cueto, M., Hernández-Álvarez, J. L., & Castejón, F. J. (2010). Teaching games for understanding to in-service physical education teachers: Rewards and barriers regarding the changing model of teaching sport. Journal of Teaching in Physical Education, 29(4), 378–398. https://doi.org/10.1123/jtpe.29.4.378
Donkor, S. K., Nyavor, L. G., Addai-Tuffour, P., Abieraba, R. S. K., Sorkpor, R. S., & Ocansey, R. (2021b). Intra-observer evaluation of teacher-student questioning behaviours: A case study of the quality and frequency of questions administered in physical education theory class. International Journal of Physical Education, Sports and Health, 8(5), 192–197. https://doi.org/10.22271/kheljournal.2021.v8.i5c.2286
Donkor, S. K., Nyavor, L. G., Atsu, F. S., Appiah, M., Darko, R. A., Abieraba, R. S. K., Addai-Tuffour, P., & Ocansey, R. (2021a). Evaluation of student-teacher questions: A study of pedagogical practices relating to proportions and rate per-minute of questions asked in physical education class setting. International Journal of Physiology, Nutrition and Physical Education, 6(2), 265–271. https://doi.org/10.22271/journalofsport.2021.v6.i2e.2382
Freire, P. (1970). Pedagogy of the Oppressed. Herder and Herder.
García-Fariña, A., Jiménez Jiménez, F., & Anguera, M. T. (2022). Do Physical Education Teachers Use Socioconstructivist Communication Patterns in Their Classes? Journal of Teaching in Physical Education, 41(2), 301–310. https://doi.org/10.1123/jtpe.2020-0213
García-González, L., Moreno, M. P., Moreno, A., Gil, A., & Del Villar, F. (2013). Effectiveness of a video-feedback and questioning programme to develop cognitive expertise in sport. PLoS ONE, 8(12), e82270. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0082270
Gaspar, V., Gil-Arias, A., Del Villar, F., Práxedes, A., & Moreno, A. (2021). How TGfU influence on students’ motivational outcomes in Physical Education? A study in elementary school context. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18(10), 5407. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18105407
Gil-Arias, A., García-González, L., Del Villar, F., Moreno, A., & Moreno, M. P. (2015). Effectiveness of video feedback and interactive questioning in improving tactical knowledge in volleyball. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 121(3), 635–653. https://doi.org/10.2466/30.PMS.121c23x9
Hafina, A., Nur, L., & Malik, A. A. (2022). The development and validation of a character education model through traditional games based on the Socratic method in an elementary school. Jurnal Cakrawala Pendidikan, 41(2), 404–415. https://doi.org/10.21831/cp.v41i2.46125
Harvey, S., & Light, R. L. (2015). Questioning for learning in game-based approaches to teaching and coaching. Asia-Pacific Journal of Health, Sport and Physical Education, 6(2), 175–190. https://doi.org/10.1080/18377122.2015.1051268
Hattie, J. (2009). Visible learning: A synthesis of over 800 meta-analyses relating to achievement. Routledge.
Hmelo-Silver, C. E., Duncan, R. G., & Chinn, C. A. (2007). Scaffolding and Achievement in Problem-Based and Inquiry Learning: A Response to Kirschner, Sweller, and Clark. Educational Psychologist, 42, 99-107.https://doi.org/10.1080/00461520701263368
Hover, A. (2021). Candidates use video case analysis to examine teacher questioning strategies. The New Educator, 17(2), 141–156. https://doi.org/10.1080/1547688X.2020.1783413
Jones, R. J., Mckeever, J. T., & Morley, D. (2023). ‘Now I think you have been bewitching and bewildering me’: The utilisation of Aporia in Game-Based Approaches as a means of deconstructing and reconstructing power relations. European Physical Education Review, 29(4), 512–529. https://doi.org/10.1177/1356336X231160481
Kinnerk, P., Kearney, P. E., Harvey, S., & Lyons, M. (2025). Gaelic Football Coaches’ Use of a Game-Based Approach Impacts Game Performance, Session Characteristics, and Player Perceptions. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 1–16. https://doi.org/10.1080/02701367.2025.2496263
Kinnerk, P., Kearney, P. E., Harvey, S., & Lyons, M. (2024). High performance team sport coaches’ perspectives of their use of in-session core coaching practices to stimulate player learning. Sport, Education and Society, 29(8), 983–996. https://doi.org/10.1080/13573322.2023.2235588
Light, R. L., & Robert, J. E. (2010). The impact of Game Sense pedagogy on Australian rugby coaches’ practice: A question of pedagogy. Physical Education & Sport Pedagogy, 15(2), 103–115. https://doi.org/10.1080/17408980902729388
Lockwood, C., Munn, Z., & Porritt, K. (2015). Qualitative research synthesis: Methodological guidance for systematic reviewers utilizing meta-aggregation. International Journal of Evidence-Based Healthcare, 13(3), 179–187. https://doi.org/10.1097/XEB.0000000000000062
Mandigo, J., Lodewyk, K., & Tredway, J. (2019). Examining the Impact of a Teaching Games for Understanding Approach on the Development of Physical Literacy Using the Passport for Life Assessment Tool. Journal of Teaching in Physical Education, 38(2), 136–145. https://doi.org/10.1123/jtpe.2018-0028
McNeill, M. C., Fry, J. M., Wright, S. C., Tan, C. W. K., & Rossi, T. (2008). Structuring time and questioning to achieve tactical awareness in games lessons. Physical Education & Sport Pedagogy, 13(3), 231–249. https://doi.org/10.1080/17408980701345766
McNeill, M. C., Fry, J. M., Wright, S. C., Tan, W. K. C., Tan, K. S. S., & Schempp, P. G. (2004). ‘In the local context’: Singaporean challenges to teaching games on practicum. Sport, Education and Society, 9(1), 3–32. https://doi.org/10.1080/1357332042000175791
Milawati, M., Rohmah, N., & Alim, H. S. (2020). Teacher’s questioning strategies in scaffolding students’ learning at university level. Jurnal Pendidikan Bahasa Inggris, 9(2), 308–321. https://doi.org/10.26618/exposure.v9i2.4170
Moola, S., Munn, Z., Tufanaru, C., Aromataris, E., Sears, K., Sfetcu, R., Currie, M., Qureshi, R., Mattis, P., Lisy, K., & Mu, P.-F. (2017). Chapter 7: Systematic reviews of etiology and risk. In E. Aromataris & Z. Munn (Eds.), Joanna Briggs Institute Reviewer’s Manual. The Joanna Briggs Institute. https://reviewersmanual.joannabriggs.org/
Mosston, M., & Ashworth, S. (2008). Teaching physical education (1st ed.). https://spectrumofteachingstyles.org/assets/files/book/Teaching_Physical_Edu_1st_Online.pdf
Nappi, J. S. (2017). The importance of questioning in developing critical thinking skills. The Delta Kappa Gamma Bulletin: International Journal for Professional Educators, (84)(1), 30-41.
O'Connor, D., Larkin, P., Robertson, S., & Goodyear, P. (2021). The art of the question: The structure of questions posed by youth soccer coaches during training. Physical Education and Sport Pedagogy, 27(3), 304–319. https://doi.org/10.1080/17408989.2021.1877270
Parkes, C., & Hemphill, M. A. (2025). Hardcore coaching and hardcore fitness-oriented preservice teachers delivery of teaching games for understanding. Physical Education and Sport Pedagogy, 30(2), 169–183. https://doi.org/10.1080/17408989.2023.2194908
Panadero, E. (2017). A review of self-regulated learning: Six models and four directions for research. Frontiers in Psychology, 8, 422. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00422
Partington, M., & Cushion, C. (2013). An investigation of the practice activities and coaching behaviors of professional top‐level youth soccer coaches. Scandinavian Journal of Medicine & Science in Sports, 23(3), 374–382. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0838.2011.01383.x
Paul, R., & Elder, L. (2007). Critical thinking: The art of Socratic questioning. Foundation for Critical Thinking.
Pill, S., SueSee, B., & Davies, M. (2024). The Spectrum of Teaching Styles and models-based practice for physical education. European Physical Education Review, 30(1), 142–155. https://doi.org/10.1177/1356336X231189146
Práxedes, A., Moreno, A., Sevil, J., García-González, L., & Del Villar, F. (2016). A preliminary study of the effects of a comprehensive teaching program, based on questioning, to improve tactical actions in young footballers. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 122(3), 742–756. https://doi.org/10.1177/0031512516649716
Rahima, A. R., Kadariyah, N., & Hasanah, N. I. (2023). The Use of Questioning Strategy in Promoting Students Critical Thinking. Journal of English Language Teaching and English Linguistics, 8(2). https://doi.org/10.31316/eltics.v8i2.5212
Raya-Castellano, P. E., McRobert, A. P., Cárdenas, D., Fradua, L., & Reeves, M. J. (2024). Exploring the ‘teachable moments’ of questioning during training: A work-based coach development programme affecting behaviour change. Physical Education and Sport Pedagogy, 29(4), 376–394. https://doi.org/10.1080/17408989.2022.2083095
Raya-Castellano, P. E., Reeves, M. J., Littlewood, M., & McRobert, A. P. (2020). An exploratory investigation of junior-elite football coaches’ behaviours during video-based feedback sessions. International Journal of Performance Analysis in Sport, 20(4), 729–746. https://doi.org/10.1080/24748668.2020.1782717
Roberts, S. J. (2011). Teaching Games for Understanding: The difficulties and challenges experienced by participation cricket coaches. Physical Education & Sport Pedagogy, 16(1), 33–48. https://doi.org/10.1080/17408980903273824
Soerel, B. F., Plaatsman, L. A., Kegelaers, J., Stubbe, J. H., Van Rijn, R. M., & Oudejans, R. R. D. (2023). An analysis of teachers’ instructions and feedback at a contemporary dance university. Frontiers in Psychology, 14, 1133737. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1133737
Tekin, M., & Elmas, L. (2020). Investigation of the imagery and creativity of the 7th grade students using guided discovery method. Educational Research and Reviews, 15(5), 242–252. https://doi.org/10.5897/ERR2020.3940
Thorburn, M., & Seatter, K. (2015). Asking better questions! A review of the pedagogical strategies used in one senior level award in Scotland. Journal of Pedagogy, 6(1), 123–149. https://doi.org/10.1515/jped-2015-0007
Tinning, R. (2002). Engaging Siedentopian Perspectives on Content Knowledge for Physical Education. Journal of Teaching in Physical Education, 21(4), 378–391. https://doi.org/10.1123/jtpe.21.4.378
Treschman, P., Stylianou, M., Brooks, C., & Sperka, L. (2025). Activating students in feedback and assessment processes in physical education. Sport, Education and Society, 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1080/13573322.2025.2510427
Turan, M., Pepe, O., Karaoğlu, B., & Sucan, S. (2016). University students’ general self-sufficiencies’ predictive power of the questioning skills. The Turkish Online Journal of Educational Technology, 2016 (Special Issue for INTE 2016), 1244–1251.
Zeng, H., Lenng, R., Liu, W., & Hipscher, M. (2009). Physical education in urban high school class settings: Features and correlations between teaching behaviors and learning activities. The Physical Educator, 66, 186–196.
Downloads
Published
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2026 Evanthia Maria Fragkogoula, Kyriaki Emmanouilidou, Athina Pitsi, Vasiliki Derri, Olga Kouli (Autor/a)
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License.
The works published in this journal are subject to the following terms:
The author retains the economic rights (copyright) of the published works and grants the journal the right of first publication.
The works are published in the electronic edition of the journal under a Creative Commons Attribution–NonCommercial–ShareAlike license. They may be copied, used, distributed, transmitted, and publicly displayed, provided that: (i) authorship and the original source of publication (journal, publisher, and URL of the work) are cited; (ii) they are not used for commercial purposes; (iii) the existence and specifications of this license are indicated.
Self-archiving conditions. Authors are permitted and encouraged to disseminate electronically the post-print versions (publisher’s version), as this facilitates earlier circulation and dissemination, potentially increasing citation and reach within the academic community. Authors may also deposit their articles in repositories and other platforms that support the dissemination of information, provided that the version used is the post-print (publisher’s version). RoMEO color: Blue.
